Furta Sacra: Thefts of Relics in the Central Middle Ages
Patrick J. Geary
Number of quotes: 32
Book ID: 94 Page: 18
Section: 2A3
Chapter 1 section The Evolution of Saints’ Cults in the Central Middle AgesThe first phase of Carolingian concern for relics was the active support of their use in secular and ecclesiastical life. The canon Item Placuit of the Fifth Council of Carthage (401) was reinvoked, requiring that all altars contain relics. Official encouragement was given to the practice of swearing oaths on relics, and the centrality of saints and their relics was increased through the encouragement of pilgrimages to the tombs of saints.
The second and more lasting contribution of the Carolingians was the augmentation of the relic supply north of the Alps. In the mid-eighth century and again a century later Carolingian ecclesiastics procured numerous bodies of saints from Italy and even Spain to glorify and protect the Frankish Church. These translations were made with a specific purpose. Through the latter part of the ninth century as the over-extended, centralized system of Carolingian government receded before the rising power of local and regional aristocracies, ecclesiastical institutions were forced to look elsewhere for support and protection.
Quote ID: 2419
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 21
Section: 2E1
Chapter 1 section The Evolution of Saints’ Cults in the Central Middle AgesSaints were also fund-raisers. The translation of Saint Foy to Conques was justified as necessary for the health and salvation of the area. The second aim is impossible to judge, but the saint was certainly successful in supporting the economic health of Conques for centuries.
Quote ID: 2420
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 25
Section: 2A2,2A3
Chapter 1 section The Evolution of Saints’ Cults in the Central Middle AgesIn the ninth century, as we shall see in Chapter 2, the eucharist was one relic among others. True, it was the most worthy because it was the body of Christ, but it functioned just as did many other relics. In church dedications, it could be placed in altar stones either along with other relics or alone since it was the body of Christ. Moreover, relics, like the eucharist, might be placed on the altar. {19}
Quote ID: 2421
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 25
Section: 2A3
Chapter 1 section The Evolution of Saints’ Cults in the Central Middle AgesOdo of Cluny tells of the relics of a saint which ceased working when exposed on the altar of a church. It was of course proper and even necessary for relics to be found inside the altar, but the saint explained in a vision that she could not work miracles when placed on the altar where only the majesty of the divine mystery should be celebrated. {20}
Quote ID: 2422
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 28
Section: 5D
Chapter 2 The Cult of Relics in Carolingian EuropeSimilar spontaneous unauthorized popular devotions have frequently appeared through the history of Christianity.
Quote ID: 2423
Time Periods: ?
Book ID: 94 Page: 29
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 The Cult of Relics in Carolingian EuropeCarolingian ecclesiastics of the generation preceding Amolo’s had encouraged the development of saints’ cults in the empire to strengthen both the faith and the cohesiveness of Frankish society. They had strengthened the role of saints within and without the Church, and they had begun the practice of translating saints, particularly from Italy, into the heart of the empire.
Quote ID: 2424
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 29
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 The Cult of Relics in Carolingian EuropeThe Carolingians had given a great emphasis to the cult of saints’ relics, but the practice of revering the physical souvenirs of great men was not invented in the Middle Ages; it was at least as old as Christianity and in many respects older. Nor was it limited to western Europe. The cult of the heroes of classical antiquity {2} and the veneration of relics of Mohammed and the Buddha indicate that relic cults are a common means of religious expression shared by many societies. {3}
Quote ID: 2425
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 29
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Relic Cults to the Ninth CenturyDevotion to the remains of saints can be traced to two fundamental antecedents: the pagan cult of heroes, and the Christian belief in the resurrection of the body.
Quote ID: 2426
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 30
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Relic Cults to the Ninth CenturyHowever, the cult of heroes undoubtedly prepared the inhabitants of the Graeco-Roman world for the veneration of the bodies of outstanding men, and it is not surprising that the veneration of Christian martyrs very early centered on their tombs. But almost as soon as it began, the cult of martyrs exceeded the veneration of heroes which, for all its popularity, had remained a form of veneration of the eternally dead. The bodies of the martyrs, unlike those heroes, would not remain dead forever.
Quote ID: 2427
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 31
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Relic Cults to the Ninth CenturyHowever, if Christ was always at the center of official Christian worship, this centrality was not fully appreciated by the masses of incompletely Christianized laity and ecclesiastical “proletariat.” It appears that the religion of the majority of the semibarbarian inheritors of the empire in the West was hagiocentric.
. . . . but judging from church dedications, liturgies, and popular devotions such as the one which introduced this chapter, at the close of the eighth century Frankish religion was and had long been essentially one of mediation through the saints.
Quote ID: 2428
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 31
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Relic Cults to the Ninth CenturyThe sources of relics did not even have to be dead. The famous incident in the late eighth century involving Aldebertus, the peripatetic Gaul who attracted a great following and even gave away bits of his hair and nails for the veneration of his followers, is proof that people were eager to focus their attention on some physical reminder of the persons whose power they sought. {9}
Quote ID: 2429
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 32
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Relic Cults to the Ninth CenturyThat one of the most clear-headed churchmen of his day condoned such devotion indicates the almost universal acceptance of relic cults and their importance in the Church.
Quote ID: 2430
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 32
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 The Nature of RelicsRichard Southern accurately describes the position of relics in the medieval universe:
Relics were the main channel through which supernatural power was available for the needs of ordinary life. {12}
Quote ID: 2431
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 33
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 The Nature of RelicsIf Firminius refused to come to the pilgrims’ assistance, he did so not because the necessary prayers or incantations had been pronounced incorrectly, or because the saint was powerless; he simply chose not to help. Moreover, not only could the saint choose whom he would help, but he could change his mind and decide to move elsewhere in order to favor another community with his power.
Quote ID: 2432
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 34
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 The Nature of Relics. . . relics and the eucharist evidenced on the continent as well. In fact the eucharist was itself a relic differing only in its being “the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ,” rather than the body and blood of one of his saints.
Quote ID: 2433
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 35
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsIn fact, the Carolingians’ efforts were directed toward strengthening and expanding the place of relics in Frankish life.
Quote ID: 2434
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 37
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsIn 801 and again in 813, the canon Item placuit of the Fifth Council of Carthage requiring that all altars lacking relics be destroyed was reenacted in the Frankish empire. {23}
Quote ID: 2435
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 37
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsFaced with the problem of cementing the conversion of the recently and only superficially Christianized Saxons and Avars, Charles used these splendid rituals to focus the faith of nominal Christians. In so doing, he was acting in the tradition of Gregory the Great, who had ordered relics placed in pagan temples newly converted to Christian churches. {25}
Quote ID: 2436
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 37
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsCharles also encouraged expansion of relics’ legal and social significance by making the ecclesiastical practice of using them for oath taking normative for all oaths. In Germanic law, an oath could be taken on any object: one’s own beard, a ring, or the chair of a leader. {26}
Quote ID: 2437
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 38
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsIn 803 Charles made this practice normative, ordering that “all oaths be sworn either in a church or on relics.” {29} The emperor’s throne, still in position in his Aachen chapel, with its compartments for the insertion of relics, symbolized the perfect combination of these Germanic and Christian traditions: one could swear on the throne, containing relics, in a church. The formula prescribed for use in these oaths was, “May God and the saint whose relics these are judge me,” {30}
Quote ID: 2438
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 39
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of Relics. . . in the ninth century the most admired holy men were still the martyrs. {34} But real martyrs were in very short supply during this period.
. . . . In fact, the only true martyrs had been those pagans slaughtered by Charles because of their refusal to convert.
Quote ID: 2439
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 39
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsSince no new martyrs were being produced in the empire and it was becoming increasingly difficult simply to introduce the cult of a hitherto unknown saint, three possibilities were open to a church hoping to begin to increase its collection. First, the church might profit from a redistribution of rediscovery of those relics already in situ-
Quote ID: 2440
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 40
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsSince redistribution of local or foreign saints was the most practical alternative, lay and ecclesiastical reformers recognized that these translations would require regulation.
Quote ID: 2441
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 40
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsIn order to prevent this and other types of exploitation of popular piety, the Synod of Mainz in 813 ordered that all translations be approved: “Bodies of saints shall not be transferred from place to place. Hence, let no one take it upon himself to transfer bodies of saints from place to place without the consultation of the prince and/or [vel] of the bishops and the permission of the holy synod. {38}
Quote ID: 2442
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 40
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsFollowing the execution of the papal notary Theodore and the nomenclator Leo in 823, the Franks seized the opportunity to intervene in papal affairs. Lothar, co-emperor since 817, was able to obtain oaths from Pope Eugenius II which effectively placed the papacy under the emperor’s tutelage. {39} Frankish churchmen like Hilduin took advantage of this new state of affairs to extract from the pope some of Rome’s most valuable assets – its vast store of bodies of the early martyrs. Thus Hilduin received the body of Saint Sebastian and placed it in his monastery in Soissons.
Quote ID: 2443
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 41
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsSuch exhortations generally fell on deaf ears. During the next decades at least thirty such translations were recorded, and rivalry among ecclesiastics was intense. {42} The Roman martyrs were immensely popular and regardless of which other saints and martyrs reposed in one’s own crypt, abbots considered the acquiring of some famous body from Rome a necessity.
Quote ID: 2444
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 42
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsThe need for relics was thus too great to be denied, even if normal channels for their acquisition were lacking. As a result, monasteries were forced to deal with middle-men such as the “monks” encountered in Dijon.
Quote ID: 2445
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 42
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 Carolingian Reform and the Cult of RelicsBenedict of Aniane, taking his cue from Benedict of Nursia and Augustine, condemned these “eternally wandering monks . . . some of whom sell part of martyrs’ bodies (if indeed they are martyrs).” {47}
. . . .They were usually merchants and thieves, stealing relics whenever possible and then selling the to eager ecclesiastics or other members of the ruling elite.
Quote ID: 2446
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 53
Section: 2A3
Chapter 3 The ProfessionalsFurthermore, the popularity of Roman relics in the north could only enhance the Roman pontiff’s prestige. Every martyr’s body that found its way into a Frankish church served to impress upon the Franks the dignity and importance of Rome as a center of Christianity. In a period when Rome was less important as the see of the pope than as the tomb of Peter, Paul, and the other Roman martyrs, the best possible means of reminding the rest of Europe of this importance was the selective dissemination of Roman relics. {39}
Quote ID: 2447
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 53
Section: 2E1
Chapter 3 The ProfessionalsFinally, owing again to the peculiar nature of relics, Rome and the pope gave up very little in allowing some to be removed, stolen, sold, or carried away. The fact that Eugenius II had given the body of Saint Sebastian to Hilduin in 825 did not prevent Gregory IV from solemnly translating the body of that saint martyr from the catacomb in which it lay to an altar in the chapel of Gregory the Great in Saint Peter’s. {40}
Pastor John notes: John’s note: What?
Quote ID: 2448
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: 159
Section: 2A3
Chapter 2 The Cult of Relics[Footnore 6] The first translations of relics took place in the East. According to Delehaye, Les origines, p. 54, the earliest recorded is that of Saint Babylas. In the 350’s Gallus attempted to improve the Christian community by Daphne by building a church there in which he placed the body of this saint, Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica V, 19, PG LXVII, cols. 1120-1121.
Quote ID: 2449
Time Periods: 7
Book ID: 94 Page: xii
Section: 2A3
From the reign of Charles the Great until the age of the crusades, we have nearly one hundred relic theft accounts. . . .But even more bizarre for modern readers is the almost universal approval of contemporaries who heard of these thefts. Far from condemning them as aberrations or as sins against the fellow Christians from whom the saints were stolen, most people apparently praised them as true works of Christian virtue, and communities such as Beze boasted of their successful thefts.
Quote ID: 2418
Time Periods: 7
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